Metaclasses in Python

Posted on November 11, 2014

Python is—in general—a well designed, straightforward language. An enterprising young programmer need only run import this in the interpreter to be reminded of what it means to be "Pythonic":

Beautiful is better than ugly.

Explicit is better than implicit.

Simple is better than complex.

...and so on. But what is often glossed over when praising Python for all of its wonders is how incredibly mutable everything is. I mean excessively so. You can set a variable on a function. You can set a variable on a class. Hell, you can even set a class on a function! Generally, practices such as these are frowned upon in most intro CS courses, and for good reason—power such as this is too easily abused.

But, ignore all that, for today I'm going to take you on a tour of one of the more amazing examples of Python's mutability—metaclasses.

This article is written from the perspective of Python 2.7.

What Is A Class?

Before we delve into the magic of metaclasses, we should revisit classes. What's a class? A class is used to construct an object. Sounds simple enough. In compiled languages like Java, we know that we define a class, that class gets compiled, and then we can create objects using that class at runtime. Because class definitions are resolved at compile time, they are immutable. In Java, it's not possible to change a class definition during runtime. At least, not without significant black magic.

But, what about in interpreted languages?

Interestingly, interpreted languages don't suffer the same constraint. Since everything happens at runtime, everything is in play! In fact, Python classes are actually objects.

I'll repeat that, because it's important.

Python classes are actually objects.

(The same is true in Smalltalk, a significant influence on Python.)

Classes Are Objects

This is a very strange concept if you're coming from a Java background, but if you think about it you'll quickly realize this makes sense. If you've ever spent time in the Python interpreter you've probably noticed you can set attributes on just about anything.

>>> class Foo(object):
...     pass
...

>>> Foo.bar = 10
>>> Foo.bar
10

We just modified a class! This implies that it's not just a class, it's an object in memory. This means we can change it. But it is also class, meaning that it can be used to create objects.

>>> Foo
<class __main__.Foo>
>>> f = Foo()
>>> print(f)
<__main__.Foo object at 0x10b45f110>

So in Python, a class is an object that can create objects. You could also call it an "object factory". Simple.

But, what creates classes?

Type

Before we answer that question, let's revisit a particularly important part of python: type. You probably know type as the function you use to check the type of a variable.

>>> foo = 'bar'
>>> type(foo)
<type 'str'>
>>> x = 10
>>> type(x)
<type 'int'>

But type is sneaky. It has another, way more important use: it is the thing that creates classes! The syntax is type(name, bases, attrs). In fact,

class Foo(object):
    foo = "bar"

is really just syntactic sugar for

Foo = type('Foo', (object,), {'foo': 'bar'})

Check it out:

>>> class Foo(object):
...     foo = 'bar'
...
>>> Foo
<class __main__.Foo>
>>> Foo.foo
'bar'
>>>
>>> type('Bar', (object,), {'foo': 'bar'})
>>> Bar
<class __main__.Bar>
>>> Bar.foo
'bar'

This means that all the class definitions you've ever written could be rewritten using type. So, if writing a class lets us customize the creation of an object, is there something that lets us customize the creation of a class?

Great question. It's almost like you read the title of this post. You must be smart.

Metaclasses

Enter metaclasses. If you've been following along so far, you should be quite comfortable with the following analogy: classes are to objects what metaclasses are to classes. Let's jump right into a full-fledged example.

import types

def crazy_decorator(func):
    # let's pretend crazy stuff is going on here
    return func

class MetaClass(type):
    def __new__(cls, name, bases, attrs):

        for name, value in attrs.items():
            if type(value) is types.MethodType:
                attrs[name] = crazy_decorator(value)

        return super(MetaClass, cls).__new__(name, bases, attrs)

class Foo(object):
    __metaclass__ = MetaClass

    def bar(self):
        pass

    def baz(self):
        pass

In this snippet, we create a metaclass named MetaClass. MetaClass decorates every method the input class, and makes the class definition of Foo automatically have crazy_decorator applied to each of its methods.

There are a few things to note here.

Our metaclass inherits from type! As we've already seen, type is used to create classes, so if we're customizing this class creation it only makes sense that we inherit from type rather than object.

To invoke the metaclass, the Foo class declares the __metaclass__ attribute. This is the syntax used in Python 2.7. If you're using Python 3+, metaclasses are declared in class bases using the metaclass keyword.

class Foo(metaclass=MetaClass):
    pass

The metaclass declares the __new__ method. This method is invoked during class creation for every class that declares MetaClass as its metaclass. It receives four arguments.

• cls: the class being declared.
• name: the name of the class being declared.
• bases: the bases of the class being declared. Here, 'bases' means parent classes.
• attrs: the attributes of the class being declared.

We can then modify these arguments at will, provided we remember to pass them to the superclass's __new__ method.

Runtime

What actually happens at runtime though? Any time Python reaches a class definition (blocks that start with class), it performs the following four steps to create the class object.

1. Checks for a __metaclass__ attribute in the currently-executing class declaration.
2. Checks for a __metaclass__ attribute in the currently enclosing module.
3. Checks for a __metaclass__ attribute in any of that class's parent classes.
4. If all of the above checks fail, Python defaults to the one metaclass to rule them all: type.

If at anytime during those four steps, Python finds a __metaclass__ attribute, it executes the code referenced by that attribute in the creation of the class.

So, if we return to our metaclass example from the preceding section and pretend we're the Python interpreter, here (roughly) are the steps we'd take while interpreting the code from that example.

1. import the types module
2. execute the crazy_decorator function declaration
3. execute the MetaClass class declaration
4. begin executing the Foo class declaration
5. discover the __metaclass__ attribute, consult MetaClass for the remaining creation of the class declaration.

Pretty straightforward. If you want to use a metaclass, you need to make sure the __metaclass__ attribute is correctly set somewhere in Python's resolution chain.

When Should I Use A Metaclass?

Never.

I'm serious. If you really need to use one, you likely already know you know it. 99% of the time plain old fashioned inheritance can get you there just fine with infinitely lower complexity. While metaclasses are definitely fun to think about and play with, they're just not that fun to have to pick apart when entering a new codebase for the first time.

When I started at Twilio, we had a pretty important codebase whose design seemed to hinge upon the magic of metaclasses. As a result, the core of the project always had a bit of a black-box feel to me and the other engineers tasked with working on it. At first, I thought it was cool--getting to work on a project that used such an esoteric part of Python made me feel smart, clever, and modern. Over time, however, I began to realize that it was doing more harm than good to our mental understanding of the project, and started to question if it was even necessary.

Eventually, I opened up a pull request that removed the metaclasses entirely. My coworkers excitedly +1'd and we merged.

Metaclasses are way cool, but just aren't worth it.

Questions?

@dougblack.io

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